Maartje Raijmakers
References
These are
key lessons for life from today’s science museums. But does it work as a method
of science education? As scientists or science educators we need to be
discerning and take an inquisitive approach towards what might be obvious for many:
science museums are great for science education. What I will argue below is
that we need to develop good measurement tools to quantify the learning
outcomes that we find most valuable about exploration and discovery.
Inquiry-based
learning is the basic principle of presenting science to the public adopted by
many out-of-school learning environments. In science museums people can explore
scientific phenomena, do experiments, try-out ingenious constructions, be
hands-on. Although the freedom of exploration varies between exhibitions,
inquiry-based learning has become a standard practice for out-of-school
institutions. Many of these institutions are also leading the efforts to
establish this standard in school by offering a large variety of programs for
children and teachers (see for example, exploratorium.info/ifi/about/offerings.html).
The
theoretical origins of this recommendation are constructivist-learning theories
(see the work of Piaget and Vygotsky). As an individual you construct a system
of knowledge based on all experiences and information you encounter.
Consistency and mutual connections within your constructed knowledge system are
the driving forces for extending your knowledge. From this perspective it
doesn’t make much sense having someone telling you some new, disconnected facts.
Instead, it is important that, as an individual, you create the missing links in
your personal knowledge system. Hence, the advice is to explore and discover!
The obvious
question is, however: Does it work? Do
we understand more about gravity after experiencing falling objects than after
an Explainer telling us about gravity, or after doing a nicely worked-out
example? (ie., two equally-sized balls with different weight fall equally fast!
See Veritasium, 2011 and NasaGovVideo, 1971). The experimental, psychological
literature tells us that learning outcomes
are not supported by discovery learning, even not if learning outcomes include generalization
of knowledge, and deep conceptual understanding (e.g., Kirchner et al., 2006). One
explanation for this shortcoming in discovery learning is that discovery
learning requires so much multi-tasking that a learner’s working memory (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory)
gets overloaded, and they thus fail to learn anything more. The development of
inquiry skills from discovery learning experiences have also been intensively
studied. Findings suggest that the
skills of observing, measuring and designing experiments require explicit instruction
and are not attained simply by doing. (see for example the classical study by
Klahr & Nigam, 2004).
But there
is a more to a learning experience than simply an increase in knowledge and
skills. Sparking and developing interest and excitement for science are
proposed as primary values of science museums (e.g., informalscience.org/research/wiki/What-kinds-of-learning-happen-in-ISE-experiences). Enhanced attitudes, interest and excitement
for science have far-reaching impacts above and beyond the enjoyment of a
museum visit. Sparking and developing interest could result in intrinsic
motivation to learn science (as opposed to extrinsic motivation, such as
rewards and punishments from teachers and parents) for learning about science. Correlational
research shows that intrinsic motivation is strongly related to positive learning
outcomes (e.g., Vansteenkist et al., 2004; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_motivation).
Who eventually learns most about science and technology? Generally it is those
who choose science in future education and as a career. Intrinsic motivation
for learning about science plays a big role here as well. Hence, increasing
intrinsic motivation towards science might, in the long run, be much more
important than increasing of knowledge and skills.
A key focus
for informal sector science education research is to examine the efficacy of exploration
and discovery learning.. The best way of doing this is by experimental studies,
that is, randomized controlled trials. As yet, most studies about science centre
impact are correlational studies (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation),
which might be of great interest but tells us very little about impact. In
these studies attitude towards science are mostly measured by questionnaires,
as is interest and excitement. However, self-report responses may not be
accurate indications: moreover it is behaviour that is the direct outcome of
attitude. So, what are appropriate behavioural measures for interest and
excitement? In the long term, options made for further education and careers
are relevant outcome variables but these are almost impossible to include in an
experimental study. For an experimental study about the effectiveness of
interventions, such science workshops, one needs to assign people randomly to the
intervention and the control condition. Such interventions could never be so
intensive that they would have an effect long term.
For these
reasons, we need to identify behavioural measures for intrinsic motivation and willingness
to learn more about science. In the Dutch system an inquisitive approach (onderzoekende
houding in Dutch) is the term that has become common with policy makers including
the Dutch Minister of Education, Culture and Science (Bussemaker, 2013). The big question is how we do measure an
inquisitive approach as a behavioural measure. I argue that if the sector
is to continue to promote exploration and discovery as vehicles for effective
science learning we need to put greater effort into this measurement question. We
need to develop ways to measure an inquisitive approach to science by measuring
observable behaviour of individuals. Only when we are able to robustly measure
an inquisitive approach can we compare this measure to content and skills
acquisition and thereafter conduct the randomized controlled trials necessary
to demonstrate impact of science museums and centres and their explore and discover
approach.
References
Bussemaker, J. (2013). http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten-en-publicaties/toespraken/2013/06/13/toespraak-minister-bussemaker-bij-conferentie-cultuureducatie-met-kwaliteit.html
Kirschner, Paul A. , Sweller,
John and Clark, Richard E.(2006) 'Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does
Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery,
Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching', Educational
Psychologist, 41: 2, 75 — 86.
Klahr, D., & Nigam, M. (2004). The equivalence of learning paths in
early science instruction effects of direct instruction and discovery learning.
Psychological Science, 15(10), 661-667.
NasaGovVideo (1971). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NWgzlyF8yuI
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons,
J., Lens, W., Sheldon, K. M., & Deci, E. L. (2004). Motivating learning,
performance, and persistence: The synergistic role of intrinsic goals and
autonomy-support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87,
246-260.
Veritasium (2011). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_mCC-68LyZM